Related Terms

• Abreaction therapy, altered states of consciousness, antenatal self-hypnosis, autogenic training, auto-hypnosis, aversion therapy, biofeedback, cognitive hypnotherapy, conditioning therapy, creative visualization, dream therapy, guided imagery, hypnoanalgesia, hypnobirthing, hypnosis, hypnotherapy, imagery, imagination training, meditation, mesmerism, pain relief therapy, post-hypnotic suggestion, regression therapy, relaxation, relaxation mental imagery (RMI), selective attention, self-hypnosis, shamanism, switch-wire imagery, symptom relief therapy, trance, visualization.

Background

• Various forms of hypnosis, trance, and altered states of consciousness have been documented in a number of cultures throughout history. Hypnosis-like practices can be traced to ancient Egypt, Babylon, Greece, Persia, Britain, Scandinavia, America, Africa, India, and China. Wong Tai, a father of Chinese medicine, made an early written reference to hypnosis in 2600 BC. Hypnotic practices have played roles in religion and religious ceremonies. Mention is made in the Bible, Talmud, and Hindu Vedas, and trance-states are included in some Native American and African ceremonies.

• The term hypnosis is derived from the Greek word hypnos, meaning sleep. The origin of modern Western hypnotherapy is often traced to the Austrian physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815). Mesmer believed that illness is caused by an imbalance of magnetic fluids in the body that can be corrected through "animal magnetism." He asserted that the hypnotist's own personal magnetism can be transferred to a patient. The term "mesmerize" is derived from Mesmer's name.

• In the mid 20th Century, the British and American Medical Associations and the American Psychological Association endorsed hypnosis as a medical procedure. In 1995, the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) issued a consensus statement noting the scientific evidence in favor of the use of hypnosis for chronic pain, particularly pain associated with cancer.

• The process of hypnotherapy can be divided into pre-suggestion, suggestion, and post-suggestion phases. The pre-suggestion component may include selective attentional focusing with distraction, imagery, and relaxation methods. An aim is to reach an altered state of consciousness in which the conscious mind is relaxed, the unconscious mind is more accessible, and the subject is susceptible to suggestion. In the suggestion phase, specific goals or impressions are presented, questions may be asked of the subject, or memories may be explored. The post-suggestion phase occurs after a return to a normal state of consciousness, and new behaviors based on hypnotic suggestions may be practiced. It has been suggested that there is a risk of false memories (confabulation) as a result of some types of hypnotherapy, although scientific research is limited in this area.

• The degree of susceptibility to hypnosis and suggestion appears to vary between individuals. The therapeutic goals of hypnotherapy also vary, and may include the treatment of psychological or medical conditions or alteration of behaviors/habits. Subjects may seek hypnotherapy to gain control over behaviors or emotions. Self-hypnosis techniques may be used as an adjunct to sessions with a hypnotherapist.

• There is wide variation in the training and credentials of hypnotherapists. Certification is granted by multiple organizations, with different requirements. In the United States, there is no universally accepted standard or licensing for hypnotherapists. Although many therapists are not licensed medical professionals, some doctors, dentists, and psychologists are trained in hypnotherapy and may use hypnosis in their practices. Books and audiotapes are available for training in self-hypnosis, although these have not been well evaluated scientifically. Group sessions may also be offered. The length of hypnosis sessions may vary from a single brief encounter to regularly scheduled longer appointments.

Theory

• The way hypnosis works is not well understood. Some changes in the body have been associated with hypnosis, including changes in skin temperature, heart rate, intestinal secretions, and immune response. During hypnosis, decreases have been noted in heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and brain wave patterns (alpha waves). Similar changes have been reported with other forms of relaxation.

• Some scientists suggest that neuroendocrine pathways in the brain such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis or the limbic system (emotional center of the brain) are central to connecting body functions with the mind, memory, and emotions. Hypnosis is thought to activate these pathways. Various parts of the brain and spinal cord have been proposed as important in the pain-relieving properties of hypnotherapy. It has been suggested that the release of endogenous opioid peptides may play a role, although early evidence suggests that endorphins (chemicals in the brain) may not be involved in the mechanism of action.

• Hypnosis is associated with a deep state of relaxation. Whether this represents a specific altered state of consciousness is the subject of scientific debate. There are reports that suggestion alone, without the process of hypnosis, can achieve many of the same results, although research in this area is not conclusive. It is not known why some individuals are more susceptible to hypnotic suggestion than others.

Scientific Evidence

Tradition/Theory

The below uses are based on tradition or scientific theories. They often have not been thoroughly tested in humans, and safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious and should be evaluated by a qualified health care professional.

• Acne, aging, agoraphobia, alertness, Alzheimer's disease, amenorrhea, amnesia, anticoagulation (blood thinning), arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bleeding, blindness, blisters, breast enhancement, bruises, cancer, cerebral palsy, chronic diarrhea, chronic dyspnea (shortness of breath), chronic fatigue syndrome, concentration enhancement, confidence boosting, congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma (skin disorder), constipation, cystic fibrosis, diabetes mellitus, diagnostic procedure (forensics), dissociative identity disorder (DID), driving performance, dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation), dyspareunia (pain with intercourse), endurance, enhanced immune function, enhanced vision, fear of flying, gag reflex, gastritis, gastrointestinal disorders (functional abdominal pain syndrome), gastroesophageal reflux disease (acid reflux), gout, Graves' disease, grief, heart disease, hemolytic anemia, HIV/AIDS, Huntington's chorea/disease, hyperreflexic bladder, increased strength, infections, ischemic heart disease, lactation stimulation, life transition support, memory enhancement, Ménière's disease, menstrual cramps, migraine, motivation, mood, movement disorders, multiple personality disorder, multiple sclerosis, muscle spasm, musculoskeletal disorders, myasthenia gravis, nail biting, narcolepsy, neurodermatitis, neurological problems (periodic leg syndrome), oral hygiene, panic disorder, paralysis, Parkinson's disease, paruresis (psychogenic urinary retention), pemphigus vulgaris (a skin disorder), personality development, phobias, postherpetic neuralgia, postpartum care, postpartum depression, premenstrual syndrome, pruritus (itchiness), psychiatric disorders (pediatric), quality of life, Raynaud's disease, repressed memory recall, restless leg syndrome, restlessness, saliva production control, scoliosis, seizures (non-epileptic), self-esteem enhancement, sensory stimulation (sensory acuity), sleep terror disorder, speech disorders, stroke, study skill enhancement, stuttering (stammering), sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), systemic lupus erythematosus, thumb sucking, tics, tongue biting, torticollis (neck spasms), trauma, trichotillomania (compulsive hair pulling), tuberculosis, vaginismus (involuntary spasm of vaginal muscles).

Safety

Many complementary techniques are practiced by healthcare professionals with formal training, in accordance with the standards of national organizations. However, this is not universally the case, and adverse effects are possible. Due to limited research, in some cases only limited safety information is available.

• The safety of hypnotherapy has not been thoroughly studied. Practitioners sometimes discourage hypnosis in people with psychiatric illnesses such as psychosis/schizophrenia, manic depression, multiple personality disorder, or dissociative disorders, due to a proposed risk of exacerbation. Hypnosis is sometimes discouraged in people with seizure disorder, although study is lacking in this area. Disturbing memories may surface in those with post-traumatic stress disorder. It has been suggested that false memories (confabulation) may occur as a result of some types of hypnotherapy, although scientific research is limited in this area.

• Hypnotherapy should not delay the time to diagnosis or treatment with more proven techniques or therapies and should not be used as the sole approach to illnesses.

Author Information

• This information is based on a systematic review of scientific literature edited and peer-reviewed by contributors to the Natural Standard Research Collaboration (www.naturalstandard.com).

References

Natural Standard developed the above evidence-based information based on a thorough systematic review of the available scientific articles. For comprehensive information about alternative and complementary therapies on the professional level, go to www.naturalstandard.com. Selected references are listed below.

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